Sawyer, R. K. (2013). Qualitative methodologies for studying small groups. In C. E. Hmelo-Silver, A. M. O’Donnell, C. Chan, & C. A. Chinn (Eds.), The international handbook of collaborative learning. London: Taylor & Francis. Book in the lab
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Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2013). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. [Chapter 4] We strongly advise analysis concurrent with data collection. It helps the fieldworker cycle back and forth between thinking about the existing data and generating strategies for collecting new, often better, data. We advise interweaving data collection and analysis from the very start.
Data forms (focus on words):
The basic, raw data (scribbled field notes, recordings) must be processed before they are available for analysis. Field notes must be converted into expanded write-ups. Raw field notes may contain private abbreviations. They are also sketchy. A formal write-up usually will add back some of the missing content because the raw field notes stimulate the field-worker to remember things that happened at the time that are not in the notes. A write-up is an intelligible product for anyone. It can be read, edited for accuracy, commented on, coded, and analyzed . First cycle coding-->second cycle or pattern codes-->the process of deriving even more general themes through jottings and analytic memoing-->assertion and proposition development. Codes are labels that assign symbolic meaning to the descriptive or inferential information complied during a study. Codes usually are attached to data "chunks" of varying size and can take the form of a straightforward, descriptive label or a more evocative and complex one. Codes are primarily, but not exclusively, used to retrieve and categorize similar data chunks so the researcher can quickly find, pull out, and cluster the segments relating to a particular research question, hypothesis, construct, or theme. Clustering and the display of condensed chunks then set the stage for further analysis and drawing conclusions. The conceptual frameworks and research questions are the best defense against overload of information. Codes are prompts or triggers for deeper reflection on the data's meanings. Coding is thus a data condensation task that enables you to retrieve the most meaningful material, to assemble chunks of data that go together, and to further condense the bulk into readily analyzable units. Codes are first assigned to data chunks to detect reoccurring patterns. From these patterns, similar codes are clustered together to create a smaller number of categories or pattern codes. The interrelationships of the categories with each other then are constructed to develop higher level analytic meanings for assertion, proposition, hypothesis, and/or theory development. There are 3 elemental methods that serve as foundation approaches to coding:
3 affective methods that tap into the more subjective experiences:
One literary and language method, dramaturgical coding, explores human action and interaction through strategic analysis of people's motives. Dramaturgical coding: This method applies the terms and conventions of character, play script, and production analysis onto qualitative data. For character, these terms include items such as participant objectives (OBJ), conflicts (CON), tacitcs (TAC), attitudes (ATT), emotions (EMO), and subtexts (SUB). Dramaturgical coding is appropriate for exploring intrapersonal and interpersonal participant experiences and actions in case studies, power relationships, and the processes of human motives and agency. 3 exploratory methods, make preliminary or global coding assignments, based on what the researcher deductively assumes may be present in the data before they are analyzed.
2 procedural methods utilize specific rather than open-ended ways of coding data:
4 grammatical methods play a role in the mechanic of coding:
Creating codes:
Whether codes are created and revised early or late is basically less important than whether they have some conceptual and structural unity. Codes should relate to one another in coherent, study-important ways; they should be part of a unified structure. An operative coding scheme is not a catalog of disjointed descriptors but rather a conceptual web, including larger meanings and their constitutive characteristics. CAQDAS is especially helpful in displaying the structure of coding schemes, either in hierarchical form or in a network. Saldana, J. (2012). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Chi, M. T. H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: A practical guide. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6(3), 271-315.
Hatch, J. A. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
[Abstract]The reflective and interrogative processes required for developing effective qualitative research questions can give shape and direction to a study in ways that are often underestimated. Good research questions do not necessarily produce good research, but poorly conceived or constructed questions will likely create problems that affect all subsequent stages of a study. In qualitative studies, the ongoing process of questioning is an integral part of understanding the unfolding lives and perspectives of others. This article addresses both the development of initial research questions and how the processes of generating and refining questions are critical to the shaping of a qualitative study. [Notes]
Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences3/3/2014 Seidman, I. (2013). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. New York: Teachers College Press.
Third edition (2006) Anfara, V. A., & Mertz, N. T. (2006). Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE.
Agee, J. (2002). “Winks upon winks”: Multiple lenses on settings in qualitative educational research. Qualitative Studies in Education, 15(5), 569-585.
The critical indcident technique by Flanagan
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (pp. 213-242). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1. writing strategies
1) reflexivity and representations in writing qualitative researchers today acknowledge that the writing of a qualitative text cannot be separated from the author, how it is received by readers, and how it impacts the participants and sites under study. All writing is "positioned " and within a stance. Writings are co-constructions, representations of interactive processes between researchers and researched. The silence is contradictory to qualitative research that seeks to hear all voices and perspectives. Qualitative researchers need to position themselves in their writings. This is the concept of reflexivity in which the writer is conscious of the biases, values, and experiences that he or she brings to a qualitative research study. (One characteristics of good qualitative research is that the inquirer makes his or her "position" explicit: a. talks about his or her own experiences with the phenomenon being explored; b. how these part experiences shape the researcher's interpretation ) 2)Audience for our writings A basic axiom holds that all writers write for an audience. (Phenomenological study)One form was a general structure, four paragraphs in length, an approach that they admitted lost its richness and concreteness. Another form consisted of case synopses, each reporting the experiences of one individual and each two and a half pages in length. 3)Encoding our writings The words we use encode our report, revealing how we perceive the needs of our audiences. Researchers encode qualitative studies for audiences other than academics. 4)Quotes in our writings In addition to encoding text with the language of qualitative research, authors bring in the voice of participants in the study in the way of ample quotes (short eye-catching quotations, take up little space; embedded quotes, quoted phrases within the analyst's narrative; longer quotation used to convey more complex understandings ). 2. Overall and embedded writing strategies(p. 221) 1) Narrative writing structure: suggesting maximum flexibility in structure but emphasizing core elements that might go into the narrative study. Overall structure: Two different narrative structures: a. provides narratives of a chronology of the lives of thre [Abstract]The reflective and interrogative processes required for developing effective qualitative research questions can give shape and direction to a study in ways that are often underestimated. Good research questions do not necessarily produce good research, but poorly conceived or constructed questions will likely create problems that affect all subsequent stages of a study. In qualitative studies, the ongoing process of questioning is an integral part of understanding the unfolding lives and perspectives of others. This article addresses both the development of initial research questions and how the processes of generating the refining questions are critical to the shaping of a qualitative study.
[Abstract] If we use stories as "equipment for living," as tools to understand, negotiate, and make sense of situations we encounter, then a discussion of narrative ethics is a relevant, if not required, endeavor. In other words, if we learn how to think, feel, and interact with society via narratives, we also learn ethical ways of being with others, "correct" and "appropriate" ways that serve as foundations for many of our interactions. This latter epistemological assumption guides this study. In this article, the author synthesizes ethical themes of life research, themes of narrative privilege, media, and evaluative criteria. He then illustrates how these themes influence narrative inquiry.
[Abstract] In this article, the authors explore the relationships between trustworthiness and reciprocity in qualitative research: What new questions about trustworthiness arise when we view qualitative research through the lens of reciprocity? Every stage of the research process relies on our negotiating complex social situations. Participants are active in this process, and reciprocity occurs at many different levels. In this article, the authors problematize the relationship between trustworthiness and reciprocity in relation to the researcher, the research process, and the write-up. The authors consider the possibilities and the demands and obligations of reciprocity as they explore framing questions, access and rapport, insider-outsider status, passionate participation, data production, data analysis, and authorizing accounts. The authors' experiences and interpretations and tales from and of the field shape and are shaped by our understandings of reciprocity.
[Abstract] Ethical tension are part of the everyday practice of doing research--all kinds of research. How do researchers deal with ethical problems that arise in the practice of their research, and are there conceptual frameworks that they can draw on to assist them? This article examines the relationship between reflexivity and research ethics. It focuses on what constitutes ethical research practice in qualitative research and how researchers achieve ethical research practice. As a framework for thinking through these issues, the authors distinguish two different dimensions of ethics in research, which they term procedural ethics and "ethics in practice." The relationship between them and the impact that each has on the actual doings of research are examined. The article then draws on the notion of reflexivity as a helpful way of understanding both the nature of ethics in qualitative research and how ethical practice in research can be achieved.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. H 61 C732007
Pea, R. D. (1993). Learning scientific concepts through material and social activities: Conversational analysis meets conceptual change. Educational Psychologists, 28(3), 265-277.
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